Supporting Parents to Support Children: A U.K. Randomized Controlled Trial Testing a Text Message Intervention to Cultivate the Home Learning Environment.

The Home Learning Environment

A safe, stimulating, and supportive home is crucial for children’s physical, cognitive, and emotional development ( Toth et al., 2020 ). Activities such as shared book reading, the use of complex language, scaffolding, and warm, responsive interactions are all associated with better developmental outcomes by the time children start school ( Bornstein et al., 2008 ; Bradley & Corwyn, 2005 ; Hart et al., 1997 ). The presence of materials like books and toys, along with the quality of implicit and explicit learning support from parents and caregivers, fosters effective home learning environments ( E. Melhuish, 2010 ).

The linkages between the home learning environment and emergent academic skills are well established ( Lehrl et al., 2020 ), although much debate exists on how to best measure the quantity and quality of enriching activities in the home, both cross-culturally and in diverse settings within countries ( Hornburg et al., 2021 ). Enriching home environments are associated with improved early reading ( Niklas & Schneider, 2013 ; Sénéchal & LeFevre, 2002 ) and math skills ( Mutaf-Yıldız et al., 2020 ; Niklas & Schneider, 2013 ; Skwarchuk et al., 2014 ). These relations remain stable into early adolescence, and the developmental pathways are observed across different ethnic and racial groups ( Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2017 ).

Like quality metrics for early years educational settings, the quality of the home environment can be broken down into structural and process factors ( Anders et al., 2011 ; Foster et al., 2005 ). Structural characteristics include income, housing, and parental education. Process factors relate to the nature of interactions between the child and parents, other children, and the child’s engagement with their physical surroundings and resources within the home. Parental views of technology and digital resources for learning are now also an important component of the home environment ( Cahoon et al., 2024 ).

These structural and process characteristics of the home environment are situated within a wider context, as described by Bronfenbrenner’s (1986) bioecological systems theory. This theory encompasses the interconnected forces that shape a child, acknowledging both distal factors like cultural norms and proximal influences, primarily parents and the home environment ( Bronfenbrenner, 1986 ). Parenting is challenging under any circumstances, but it becomes even more difficult when parents lack the necessary support structures to create stimulating and supportive learning environments. Deficit-based accounts that highlight parental shortcomings in the context of poverty overlook the resilience and determination of these families ( DeJoseph et al., 2024 ; Ellis et al., 2017 ). In England, the past decade has seen an erosion of such services for families with young children. The closure of children’s centers ( Carneiro et al., 2024 ) 1 and local libraries ( Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy, 2023 ) has meant that parents have less access to reliable parenting advice and local support networks. Despite this, evidence from the Millennium Cohort Study in the United Kingdom suggests that mothers from low-income households are finding creative, low-cost, and enriching activities to engage their children ( Cooper, 2021 ). In the face of structural cuts, devising other approaches to support families is necessary. Programs delivered in collaboration with schools, which offer support to parents, may be one such approach.

Interventions to Improve the Home Learning Environment

Extensive research has evaluated the effectiveness of various parenting programs. These programs encompass individual and group-based training sessions delivered both online and offline, including apps and text message initiatives. The primary goal of these interventions is to equip parents with the skills needed to support their children’s cognitive, socioemotional, and physical development.

Several meta-analyses, such as those by Mol et al. (2008) and Sénéchal and Young (2008) , have highlighted the potential of home learning interventions to enhance child competencies ( Mol et al., 2008 ; Sénéchal & Young, 2008 ). More recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses (see Gao et al., 2020 ; Jeong et al., 2021 ; Wittkowski et al., 2016 ) of programs targeting parents of children under 6 years report small to medium effect sizes on various child outcomes including cognitive development, language skills, motor skills, socioemotional development, and attachment. Additionally, these studies find positive effects on parent knowledge and behavior. These findings are encouraging, but many such programs require parents’ direct involvement in face-to-face sessions, a constraint that may be out of reach for parents experiencing multiple access barriers (e.g., irregular work schedules, lack of transport, and English as an additional language [EAL]). Less intensive programs that offer parents accessible information and straightforward strategies without requiring a fixed time commitment present a promising alternative, potentially engaging parents who might not participate in more structured programs.

Recent years have seen a proliferation of apps for parents available on iOS and Android. As of the end of 2021, the Google Play Store hosted 7,819 separate apps on its platform, all targeting parents of children aged 0–18 ( Fedorychak, 2024 ). While apps offer several advantages, such as the potential for engaging content through branding and gamification, they also present significant drawbacks. One major challenge is convincing parents to download an app and use it consistently. Additionally, if parents disable push notifications, the ability to provide regular content—crucial to many interventions of this type—is immediately compromised. Another issue is the persistent “digital divide” in parents’ ability to use various technologies, including apps. Higher socioeconomic status (SES) parents and children are more digitally advantaged, which can lead to some parents, who stand to benefit the most from additional support, missing out ( Zhang & Livingstone, 2019 ).

In contrast, text messages provide one of the simplest and most effective methods for delivering content. The 160-character limit encourages developers to be concise, ensuring that only key information is conveyed. Partnering with schools to deliver content via text message can enhance effectiveness, as parents tend to pay close attention to messages from their child’s school, especially when their child is starting formal education (i.e., reception). Most schools in England already use texting platforms for logistical purposes, such as reminders about sports gear or school trips. The Tips by Text program repurposes these platforms, using them to support parents in fostering their children’s cognitive and socioemotional development.

There is growing evidence to suggest that text messages may be an effective way to engage parents in positive behaviors. In older children and adolescents, text message interventions have been shown to increase attendance rates ( Bergman & Chan, 2017 ), the number of students passing summer school ( Kraft & Rogers, 2015 ), applications for financial aid ( Page et al., 2020 ), and college enrolments ( Avery et al., 2021 ).

In the preschool context, text messages have contributed to reduced chronic absenteeism ( Smythe-Leistico & Page, 2018 ) and increased applications for childcare subsidies ( Weixler et al., 2020 ). There is also growing evidence that text messages can help improve academic skills. For example, Doss et al. (2022) found that a blended program (literacy, math, and socioemotional learning content) improves early math skills among girls ( SD = 0.156, p = .16; Doss et al., 2022 ). Similarly, Cabell et al. (2019) found that children with more advanced initial language and literacy skills benefit from a text message program designed to promote these skills, while those with lower initial skill levels do not improve in language but instead benefit from the control messages focusing on health and well-being ( Cabell et al., 2019 ). This finding highlights the importance of understanding and tailoring such interventions to the specific needs of individual families. Some families may require support in foundational areas like sleep, nutrition, health, and behavior before they can fully benefit from more academic content. Finally, Bigelow et al. (2020) investigated whether supplementing a home visiting program with text messages improves parental engagement and fidelity ( Bigelow et al., 2020 ). While the researchers found no evidence of overall improvement in child language outcomes, the text messages did result in better adherence to the program content.

Oftentimes in studies testing text message interventions, the messages are sent by researchers which can later prove problematic when attempting scale up, which generally requires delivery to be handled by nursery or school staff. Snell et al. (2022) developed a 5-month text message intervention, “Text to Talk,” where teachers sent weekly vocabulary-building activities to parents, aligned with class content. They hypothesized that teacher involvement would strengthen the parent–teacher relationship. The results indicated that children in the intervention group learned significantly more target words than those in the control group ( d = 0.17, p < .05), highlighting the potential importance of teacher participation in such programs ( Snell et al., 2022 ).

Tips by Text

In this study, we tested the efficacy of a preschool program called “Tips by Text”; a 12-month text messaging intervention for parents of reception students (age 4–5 years) 2 that aims to break down behavioral barriers to parenting by giving parents concise, actionable tips on a regular basis. Each week, parents received three text messages with short descriptions of simple activities to do at home with their child. The activities targeted language, literacy, socioemotional, and numeracy skills.

The first message labeled, “FACT,” provided parents with information about the specific skill being targeted that week and explained its importance in child development. This message sought to bridge any gaps in parents’ knowledge and understanding. The second message, a “TIP” offered parents a simple, practical activity to incorporate into their daily routines using common household objects. By breaking down the skill into manageable tasks, this message aimed to reduce the cognitive load for parents. The final message each week, the “GROWTH” message, reinforced the long-term benefits of consistently engaging in these activities with children. The program focused on enhancing the quality of learning interactions between parents and children, supporting parents to leverage everyday routines and household objects to create enriching learning experiences. See SI 1 in the online supplemental materials for a sample of the text messages and SI 2 in the online supplemental materials for the theory of change.

Tips by Text was first developed and tested via a randomized controlled trial (RCT; n = 821) in the United States and showed a positive impact of approximately 0.11 SD on early reading-related skills among 4-year-olds, as measured by the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS). Children who scored below the median of the baseline skills distribution disproportionately benefited, showing a 0.31 SD increase in scores. This result suggests that Tips by Text could help to reduce achievement gaps if rolled out more widely ( York et al., 2019 ). In a more recent RCT, also in the United States, 3- to 4-year-olds ( n = 381) from low-income backgrounds and who were not attending preschool showed improvements on the same measure, PALS (treatment effect = 0.209, p = .016), controlling for preintervention scores, child age, and caregiver language ( Chamberlain et al., 2021 ).

Understanding the Effectiveness of Interventions for Different Groups

Average treatment effects can mask important differences in how specific subgroups respond to an intervention, potentially overlooking variations in efficacy and overall benefit for diverse populations ( Dahabreh et al., 2016 ). In this study, we examine the impact of the Tips by Text intervention on three subgroups; those from different socioeconomic groups, those who speak EAL, and those who have SEN. We also explore if the program has a differential impact on students who experience more than one of these challenges.

The disparities in parenting practices between economically disadvantaged and affluent parents are notable and systematic ( Bornstein, 2013 ; Hurt & Betancourt, 2016 ; Sirin, 2005 ). Wealthier parents can often better tailor educational activities to their child’s developmental stage ( Guryan et al., 2008 ; Hill & Stafford, 1974 ; Kalil et al., 2012 ). They often have more time to engage in reading- and math-related activities and provide diverse, stimulating language interactions that help build vocabulary ( Bradley & Corwyn, 2005 ; Hoff, 2003 ; Romeo et al., 2013 ). Low-income parents, despite facing challenges, engage in enriching activities with their children by finding cost-effective and stimulating ways to support development ( Cooper, 2021 ). This is why it is crucial to study the impact of parenting interventions across the socioeconomic gradient, using various measures.

In the United Kingdom, eligibility for FSMs is commonly used as a metric of disadvantage. Students are FSM eligible if their parents receive certain benefits such as unemployment benefit or income support ( Department for Education, 2024a ). Measures of parental education and occupation level are thought to be the best measures of disadvantage, but they are not widely measured for all students, and FSM eligibility is only marginally less predictive, so is considered one of the better indicators available to researchers ( Ilie et al., 2017 ). However, as FSM is income based, it does not account for all forms of disadvantage. Furthermore, it is a binary variable, not capturing substantial variability within the two groups; students at and around the threshold will not be formally classified as disadvantaged but may well face challenges.

The Income Deprivation Affecting Children Index (IDACI) is a neighborhood-based measure of disadvantage. It is similar on some metrics to the “Child Opportunity Index” in the United States ( Data for a Diverse and Equitable Future | , n.d. ); however to our knowledge, the two have never been directly compared. IDACI reports the proportion of children living in households receiving both in-work and out-of-work benefits relative to the total number of children in that area ( Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities, 2015 ). Recent evidence suggests that children in poor neighborhoods receive less rich language exchanges and fewer learning opportunities from adults both at home and at school. This home–school combination constitutes a “double dose of disadvantage” for children during their kindergarten years ( Neuman et al., 2018 ). Finegood et al. (2017) also find that neighborhood disadvantage predicts cortisol levels in a population-based sample of infants and toddlers growing up in low income and rural communities in the United States ( Finegood et al., 2017 ). IDACI has been used previously in conjunction with FSM eligibility to provide more fine-grained analyses across the SES gradient ( Clery et al., 2022 ). This nuanced perspective is vital for understanding whether providing low-cost, easy-to-implement advice can effectively support all parents across the socioeconomic gradient, not just those facing challenges associated with low income ( Cooper, 2021 ).

EAL

In the United Kingdom, over one-fifth (21.2%) of primary school students speak EAL ( Department for Education, 2020 ). Although this is a sizable proportion of the student population, best practice for how to support non-English-speaking parents varies from school to school ( Manzoni & Rolfe, 2019 ). During the preschool years, children with EAL tend to perform less well on English Language tests ( Strand & Lindorff, 2020 ). This pattern continues into primary school where a consistent achievement gap in language and literacy assessments between EAL children and their monolingual, English-speaking peers is evident ( Strand et al., 2015 ). With ongoing exposure to English, however, the majority of EAL students catch up by the time they reach adolescence ( Law et al., 2017 ).

Examining the impact of Tips by Text on young students with EAL is crucial for several reasons. First, since the text messages were delivered to parents in English, their engagement likely depended on their English proficiency or willingness to use tools like “Google Translate.” This language barrier may have reduced the program’s effectiveness for non-English-speaking parents, resulting in a smaller average treatment effect for EAL students. Second, the assessments were conducted in English, which might have negatively affected EAL students’ performance because of the language challenge rather than developmental delays. We expect overall improvement as students adapt to an English-medium environment, with potentially greater gains in the treatment group if Tips by Text enhanced parental engagement. Finally, Tips by Text may differentially benefit EAL families who might lack access to other resources.

SEN

In the United Kingdom, the number of students who require support because of SEN has increased by 14% since 2016. Typically, the percentage of SEN students increases with age, peaking at about 20% by age 10 and then declining to around 16% by age 15 ( Department for Education, 2024c ). Only the most severe cases will have been diagnosed by age 4–5 years (reception year). While it is not possible to compare students who will eventually require SEN support to those who will not, in this study, we can compare students with the most severe SEN cases to all other students.

The parents of SEN students often require intensive, individualized support, which a text message program like Tips by Text may not provide. Despite available online support and tailored information, parents of SEN children report using the internet less frequently and face more barriers than other parents, with 21% finding it too time-consuming compared to 11% of non-SEN parents ( Zhang & Livingstone, 2019 ). There is little consensus on how best to support these families ( Gruebner et al., 2022 ). Exploring the feasibility of an intervention like Tips by Text for parents of SEN children could inform how to effectively share information with this group. While providing simple, friendly activities might be beneficial, it could also be stressful if the activities are not tailored to the child’s needs.

Multiple Challenges

For a proportion of children, challenges co-occur—for example, a student from a low-income home who does not speak English as their first language and who also has SEN. These students likely constitute a particularly high-risk group, for whom well targeted and more intensive interventions are most likely to have the greatest impact. Defining “disadvantage” is complex and cannot be summatively identified by a select number of variables like FMS, EAL, or SEN ( Darbyshire et al., 2014 ). It may be the result of one factor, or the interaction of several, relating to socioeconomic circumstance, physical and emotional well-being, or prior life events ( Krakouer et al., 2017 ). Albeit not a comprehensive examination of all challenges, this set of analyses contributes to the literature by exploring in depth, the impact of a parent-focused intervention on child early literacy and socioemotional outcomes, and how it may differ in accordance with the type of challenge children experience.

Study Aims

This study aims to rigorously evaluate the Tips by Text program through a large-scale RCT involving 109 schools and approximately 3,649 reception students (ages 4–5 years). Our goal is to build robust evidence on the effectiveness of regularly sending parents short, actionable tips via short message service that can be easily integrated into daily routines.

We aim to replicate the primary impact analysis conducted by the designated evaluation team ( Education Endowment Foundation, 2022 ) and extend it to investigate how the intervention differentially impacts students facing various challenges, including socioeconomic disadvantage, language barriers, and SEN. Additionally, we explore the effects of the program on students experiencing multiple challenges simultaneously.

This study contributes to the literature on home learning environment interventions by testing a simple, cost-effective method to support parents in a nonintrusive and time-efficient manner. By doing so, it aims to demonstrate how simple, well-timed prompts can enhance parental engagement and improve early childhood development outcomes. We outline our specific hypotheses below.

Hypothesis 1: Students whose parents receive Tips by Text will perform better on early reading (a) and socioemotional well-being (b) measures than the control group.

Hypothesis 2: The subgroup of students with below-median baseline scores will perform better on early reading (as observed in York et al., 2019 ) (a) and socioemotional well-being (b) measures than similar students in the control group.