From leadership research to district action: Building Teacher Capacity for Inclusive Practice With Autistic Pupils: A Mixed-Methods Study of Self-Efficacy, Training, Attitudes, and School Context

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Evidence and transfer

Education-related source: verify which participants, institutions and outcomes were actually studied before district adoption. Source publication type: research-article. License and identity checks do not establish study quality or causality.

Original authors’ abstract, reproduced under the source license:

Abstract Autistic pupils in mainstream secondary schools often experience unmet needs, yet limited research has examined the combined influence of multiple theoretically relevant predictors of teachers’ self-efficacy and intentions to implement inclusive practice for autistic pupils. This mixed-methods study surveyed 126 staff from six secondary schools, assessing autism-specific training, perceived inclusiveness of the school environment, experience with autistic pupils, neurodiversity-affirming attitudes, personal connection to autism, and staff role. Teacher self-efficacy and intentions for inclusive practice were measured using adapted scales, and hierarchical multiple regression identified significant predictors. Autism-specific training, perceived quality of the inclusive environment, years of experience with autistic pupils, classroom teacher role, and neurodiversity-affirming attitudes predicted higher self-efficacy. Together, these explained 42.1% of the variance. Intentions for inclusive practice were predicted by neurodiversity-affirming attitudes and training, explaining 27.5% of the variance. Thematic analysis of open-text responses revealed practical adjustments including clear communication, sensory adaptations, and emotional regulation supports, alongside challenges such as resource constraints, complex classroom dynamics, and inconsistent institutional support. Findings highlight the value of targeted autism-specific training and fostering neurodiversity-affirming attitudes, supported by inclusive school environments, to strengthen teacher capacity and sustain inclusive practice. Lay Abstract Many autistic pupils in mainstream secondary schools do not have their needs fully met. This can affect their learning, well-being, and opportunities to take part in school life. Teachers play a vital role in making schools more inclusive, but their ability and motivation to do so can be influenced by many different factors. Most research has looked at these factors separately. This study is one of the first to examine several important influences together, to see which are most strongly linked to teachers feeling confident (self-efficacy) and intending to use inclusive practices for autistic pupils. We worked with 126 staff from six secondary schools, including teachers, leaders, teaching assistants, and other support staff. We looked at the impact of autism-specific training, school environment, experience with autistic pupils, attitudes towards neurodiversity, personal connection to autism, and staff role. Participants were also asked to describe examples of strategies they use to support autistic pupils, and the challenges they face. We found that confidence was highest among staff who had autism-specific training, worked in a more inclusive school environment, had more years of experience with autistic pupils, were classroom teachers (rather than in leadership roles), and had more positive, neurodiversity-affirming attitudes. Together, these factors explained more than two fifths (about 42%) of the differences in how confident staff felt. Intentions to use inclusive practices were strongest among staff with neurodiversity-affirming attitudes and autism-specific training, and these two factors together explained just more than a quarter (about 28%) of the differences in how strong those intentions were. Staff described a wide range of helpful strategies, such as giving clear instructions, adapting sensory environments, and supporting emotional regulation. However, they also reported challenges such as limited time, resources, and inconsistent support from school systems. The findings show that targeted autism-specific training, positive attitudes towards neurodiversity, and inclusive school environments can work together to strengthen teacher confidence and commitment to inclusion. Removing systemic barriers will help ensure that staff can put these skills and values into practice to benefit autistic pupils. Keywords: autism, inclusive education, teacher self-efficacy, training, attitudes, secondary school

Study methods

A cross-sectional correlational design was used to investigate predictors of teachers’ self-efficacy for autism and intentions to implement inclusive practices. (Although predictors are discussed in statistical terms, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference or conclusions about temporal ordering.) In addition to quantitative measures, participants provided qualitative data on reasonable adjustments, their likelihood of use, challenges in supporting autistic pupils and changes in practice following training.

Limitations

Prior research – outlined above – has identified multiple factors associated with teachers’ self-efficacy and inclusive practice for autistic pupils. However, most studies have examined these predictors in isolation or within narrow combinations. While some have explored multiple factors (e.g., Alassaf, 2025; Hosford & O’Sullivan, 2016; Humphrey & Symes, 2013; Love et al., 2019; Nolan & Hannah, 2019; Park & Chitiyo, 2011; Ryan & Mathews, 2022), few have incorporated all key predictors within a single, theoretically grounded model to evaluate their relative influence. Furthermore, much of the existing literature conflates generic SEND training with autism-specific training, despite important differences in content and relevance. Similarly, research on teacher attitudes frequently employs broad inclusion measures, omitting items that reflect neurodiversity-affirming perspectives or social justice orientations (Forlin et al., 2014; Hosford & O’Sullivan, 2016; Monsen et al., 2014; Sharma et al., 2012).

A 90-day district inquiry

Days 1–15 · Appraise. Read the source methods, recruitment, comparator, outcomes and limitations. Record how the study setting differs from your district and which claim the design can support.
Days 16–30 · Design. Choose one school improvement question with teachers. Protect a short shared planning cycle, agree an instructional change and use a common rubric for examining student work. Agree participation, privacy protections, baseline and stopping rules before starting.
Days 31–60 · Observe. Collect the pre-agreed measures, keep a log of implementation changes and invite confidential voluntary feedback. Preserve existing support for staff and learners.
Days 61–90 · Decide. Review implementation fidelity, teacher time and independently scored student work against a recorded baseline. Examine access differences and competing explanations before attributing changes to leadership. Make a dated decision to stop, revise or extend the inquiry.

Board decision brief

Present the local problem, source setting, evidence limits, intervention, responsible owner, total cost, measured changes and uncertainty. Separate staff perceptions, implementation measures and student learning outcomes.

Attribution and reuse

Anna Cook; Alice Boddy. Building Teacher Capacity for Inclusive Practice With Autistic Pupils: A Mixed-Methods Study of Self-Efficacy, Training, Attitudes, and School Context. Autism (2026-09-03). https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613261478886

Prepared 2026-11-07. Source authorship and DOI are preserved. The abstract and source passages are attributed extracts; this editorial guide is offered under the same CC BY 4.0 license.